Introduction

The Great Outdoors

Look around you. Now, ask yourself: "Where is geography?" It shouldn't take you long to notice that it is not indoors. It is outdoors.

Geography involves data. Some data have already been collected and exist in readily usable forms. Census data, and land records are two of the more common forms of what is known as "secondary" data. These data have their advantages, especially in regards to understanding large areas. However, they are often too general to provide insight at the more local level, and they often suffer from being out-of-date, or at least not up-to-date.

Certain geographical problems, for instance those where essential data are not available from published sources or the existing data are outdated or otherwise unreliable, require data to be collected first-hand "in the field." This course deals with just such data collection. Emphasis is placed here on the techniques used to obtain what is known as "primary" data from field observation. Being an upper division course, it is assumed that you, the field worker, can apply pertinent concepts, knowledge of subject matter, and skills acquired in other courses and experiences to the solution of specific field problems.

Although many geographers today are fascinated with the wizardry of the Age of Electronics, and, indeed, many topics can only be addressed with such tools, there is still the need for geographers to get their boots dirty. In fact, the dichotomy between what might be envisaged as modern electronic geographers and old fashioned explorers is becoming increasingly obscured. In this class we will be both outdoors and wired. You will learn some very old, basic, and still reliable techniques, and you will learn how to use some of the lastest electronic field tools.
 
 

Methods and Techniques

The terms "methods" and "techniques" are often used interchangeably. For our purposes, however, a distinction will be made. The term methods is used to describe overall research framework or design. In this respect it is usually the logical next step after establishing the theoretical context of the research project (something usually reserved for graduate level courses). The term techniques refers to the actual manner in which field data are collected.

One convenient way to think about the differences between theory, methods, and techniques is to compare them with championships, games, and plays, respectively, as outlined below:
 
 

The goal: to be the champions to address a specific theory

The objective (strategy): to win games to formulate research methods

The tactics: to run plays correctly to use techniques

The Problem of Diversity

Geographers are interested in the spatial distribution of phenomena and their areal associations over the surface of the earth. In spite of this common concern, we are a diverse lot. The Association of American Geographers currently recognizes more than 50 topical or systematic subfields, and specialty groups.

Given this diversity, each field problem is unique and the specific techniques employed to acquire data must be adjusted to serve its needs. Each field problem has its special qualities, areal characteristics, and its own set of essential data to be collected. There is, for better or worse, no standard set of techniques that can be applied in every circumstance.

When are field techniques needed?

Research problems that frequently require field work can be classified into three highly generalized groups.
     
  1. Microscale problems in which the data required are so detailed that no published sources exist and for which the data cannot be obtained from map, aerial photograph, or other remote-sensing imagery interpretation.
  2. Problems that are concerned with dynamic areas which undergo changes over very short periods of time.
  3. Problems that require information that does not reflect itself as visible features on the landscape, such as certain types of social and behavioral patterns.
For those geographers who address themselves to what are often called "applied" problems such as land use, environmental quality, planning, as well as those interested in "theoretical" problems such as fluvial processes, and cultural ecology, field work has long been a necessary part of their overall training.

The Scope of Modern Field Research

Many current field problems are concerned with the location of new facilities, be they stores, factories, parks, etc. Detailed information about the biophysical characteristics of the land and socioeconomic factors must be collected and analyzed to determine optimum sites. Other field projects focus on land use developments and land use planning--determining the optimum facility to place on a specific tract of land. Data collected in the field serve as the basis of planning and often minimize conflicts arising from incompatible land use developments.

In recent years there has been much interest in hazards, both natural (e.g., earthquakes) and human-made (e.g., water pollution). Surprisingly little data at appropriate scales exists to address such issues. Accordingly, developing relevant ordinances and regulations to control the building certain things in certain places depends on detailed field studies. The legal necessity of preparing environmental impact statements (EIS) has drastically increased the number and the quality of field investigations.

Data Acquisition

The acquisition of field data is accomplished in three major ways:
  1. By systematically observing and/or mapping  features and objects visible on the landscape.
  2. By using instruments and tools, such as stream gauges and increment borers, when precise information about specific processes are required.
  3. By interviewing people to obtain information concerning nonvisible aspects of the area, and by watching people to understand what they are doing as well as what they have done.
The nature of a specific problem, including the size of the study are, will determine the degree of coverage, or what some scholars call the "intensity" of the field work. In some cases, a given area may be so large (e.g., a river valley as opposed to the watershed of a creek) that total coverage by mapping or interviewing is not feasible, much less possible. To compensate for this, field workers often have to employ sampling procedures. There is, unfortunately, no standard formula that can be applied universally to all field problems to determine whether total coverage of an area is necessary or what types and amount of sampling should be used.

Field Training and This Course

The values and purposes of geographical field training at the college level can be grouped into two broad categories.
  1. To prepare students for a career in applied geographical research [examples].
  2. To enrich the general and overall education of students of geography and related fields.
This course will do both. It is also intended to help students:
  1. Develop a better understanding of the nature of things covered in other topical and regional geography courses, and read about in books.
  2. Enhance their ability to read the landscape.
  3. Experience the thrill of discovery.
  4. Distinguish between necessary and extraneous information.
Field courses take a number of various formats. Some courses literally involve being in the field, often at some exotic locale, for extended periods of time [ sample ].  Others are offered during regular semesters, and on campus.  Of the latter, some are specialized and advanced.  For example, learning the science of palynology which involves collecting and analyzing fossil pollen requires a great deal of work which is both focused and detailed.  Other courses, of which this is one, are structured in such a way as to be comprehensive and introductory.  Students will be exposed to a number of field techniques pertinent to several major subfields of the discipline, both physical and human. Exercises and activities will cover a variety of topics, including but not limited to landforms, vegetation, and land use. They will require a general background in geography.

The rationale for a comprehensive course is to expose students to a diversity of field techniques in order to develop skills and perspectives that are applicable to a wide range of field situations. Initially, this course will involve highly structured simple data-collection exercises. Subsequent activities will be more complex and open-ended. Most of the projects will be undertaken in groups of two to four students.

Suggested Additional Readings

 Created by William E. Doolittle. Revised 12 May 2017