Short Papers: A Civil Society for Arabia

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The bulk of scholarship on the subject of civil society concentrates on =
it as a Western phenomenon. It is seen as either a system of democratic =
ideals espoused by humanists or a framework from which to approach the =
study of government wherein the efficacy of the political structure is =
rooted in the social interaction of its people through organized groups. =
Since many argue that civil society, thusly defined, is requisite to the =
development of stable democracy, such a paradigm excludes the =
possibility of nations without such traditions do not exist. Cultural =
regions such as the Arab world would be disqualified from ever =
establishing lasting democratic regimes since the concepts and =
structures of civil society as it is perceived by Westerners is not =
indigenous. How, then, can this conflict be resolved? The answer lies in =
the medieval writings of Ibn Khaldun, a Tunisian of the 14th century. =
His canonical work the Muqaddima details many aspects of traditional =
Arab culture and society, providing insight into their inner workings. =
Among Ibn Khaldun's observations, none is more important than that of =
the unity felt by Arab tribes, known as 'a=EE ab=CC yya. Ibn Khaldun's =
'a=EE ab=CC yya can serve as the basis for a framework from which to =
approach the concept of civil society so that it might apply more =
idiosyncratically to the Middle East.

At the time of his writing of the Muqaddima, Ibn Khaldun lived in a =
world dominated by Arab civilization. Europe was in the throes of the =
Dark Ages, while the empires of East Asia were largely isolationist. The =
Islamic empire stretched from the beaches of Morocco and Andalusia to =
the mountains of India, encompassing a great many cultures and groups. =
Yet at the heart of this culture remained the Arab Bedouin. Living in =
the desert placed certain constraints on Bedouin society. They did not =
have the luxuries or convenience of codified or systematic laws; =
instead, they lived by the laws of nature, reacting to the changing =
winds and traversing the desert in clans in search of water. Ibn Khaldun =
argues that "only tribes held together by group feeling can live in the =
desert." But what is this "group feeling" that permitted Bedouin society =
to overcome the elements and survive the tortures of the desert?

Ibn Khaldun explains this sentiment as a natural result of the =
interactions that were forced by the harsh conditions of desert life. =
Since they had to rely on one another for protection and perpetuation, =
it logically follows that they would develop a very tight-knit community =
based on mutual respect. But "mutual respect" is insufficient to express =
the full meaning of 'a=EE ab=CC yya.

Due to this mutual reliance, Bedouin society developed a structural =
hierarchy that placed emphasis on blood lineage. Clan formation was =
supreme in determining the loyalties and interactions of Bedouin =
society. The concept of family was far more encompassing than that of =
most Westerners. The extended family, including distant cousins and =
tangential relatives, were all accorded the same respect and loyalty, as =
members of the same clan. There was a mutual identity forged from common =
goals and experiences of interdependence--'a=EE ab=CC yya.

When the Bedouin tribes slowly began to settle into a pastoral =
lifestyle, they kept the societal structure of their nomadic days. The =
foundations that were laid in the desert extended to the fledgling =
cities, forming the basis of what is now considered "the Arab way of =
life". With the advent of Islam, a distinctly Arab monotheism that =
places stresses the importance of family, the concept of 'a=EE ab=CC yya =
can be said to have been given a driving ideology to match its =
encompassing unity.

An understanding of the historical bases of modern Arab society, with =
illustration and elaboration from Ibn Khaldun, provides sufficient =
background to refute the Orientalist definition of "civil society". It =
is easy for Western academics to expound on secular, non-familial =
organizations as the underpinnings of liberal democracy because Western =
society after the Renaissance placed less emphasis on the family as a =
unit. Christianity was re-examined during the Reformation to focus =
mainly on the individual's relationship with God, rather than man's =
station or duties on earth. But Islam is a far less abstract dogma.

Like any other religious text, the Qur'an explains the nature of God =
(Allah) and His divine plan for mankind. But unlike Christianity, it =
consists of far more specific instructions on day-to-day living. Among =
these instructions is the position and importance of family, which is =
echoed in the Bedouins described by Ibn Khaldun. Although the Qur'an =
focuses mainly on the nuclear family, it is imperative to see this unit =
in its societal context. A family in the Arab world is a component of a =
larger network of family-not as often called "clans" as in the distant =
past, but the concepts are similar.

In light of modern imperialism, 'a=EE ab=CC yya takes on a new air. No =
longer simply centered around the blood-related tribe, this sentiment of =
unity served as the basis of such modern movements as Pan-Arabism and =
the more recent Pan-Islamism. Both of these movements were led in =
directions very different from democracy, yet when one examines the =
interactions of the people, it becomes apparent that 'a=EE ab=CC yya is =
very similar to the ideas of civil society in the West.

Where Robert Putnam emphasizes soccer clubs and social organizations, =
Ibn Khaldun would today emphasize the Mosque or coffeehouse, both of =
which are modern centers of social interaction. The key is not the =
organizational structure of interaction, but the interaction itself. =
People must be able to share ideas and openly discuss matters of =
importance to them in order to develop the social ties necessary to =
foster a strong sense of civil society. Although the system of this =
interaction is different in the West and Middle East, the activities =
fostered by their respective systems yield a dialogue. And it is this =
dialogue that can serve as the basis for strong and lasting democracies.

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A Civil Society for Arabia

The bulk of scholarship on the subject of civil society concentrates = on it as=20 a Western phenomenon. It is seen as either a system of democratic ideals = espoused by humanists or a framework from which to approach the study of = government wherein the efficacy of the political structure is rooted in = the=20 social interaction of its people through organized groups. Since many = argue that=20 civil society, thusly defined, is requisite to the development of stable = democracy, such a paradigm excludes the possibility of nations without = such=20 traditions do not exist. Cultural regions such as the Arab world would = be=20 disqualified from ever establishing lasting democratic regimes since the = concepts and structures of civil society as it is perceived by = Westerners is not=20 indigenous. How, then, can this conflict be resolved? The answer lies in = the=20 medieval writings of Ibn Khaldun, a Tunisian of the 14^th = century. His=20 canonical work the Muqaddima details many aspects of traditional = Arab=20 culture and society, providing insight into their inner workings. Among = Ibn=20 Khaldun’s observations, none is more important than that of the = unity felt by=20 Arab tribes, known as ‘a=EE=20 ab=CC yya. Ibn = Khaldun’s=20 'a=EE ab=CC yya can serve as the = basis for a=20 framework from which to approach the concept of civil society so that it = might=20 apply more idiosyncratically to the Middle East.

At the time of his writing of the Muqaddima, Ibn Khaldun lived = in a=20 world dominated by Arab civilization. Europe was in the throes of the = Dark Ages,=20 while the empires of East Asia were largely isolationist. The Islamic = empire=20 stretched from the beaches of Morocco and Andalusia to the mountains of = India,=20 encompassing a great many cultures and groups. Yet at the heart of this = culture=20 remained the Arab Bedouin. Living in the desert placed certain = constraints on=20 Bedouin society. They did not have the luxuries or convenience of = codified or=20 systematic laws; instead, they lived by the laws of nature, reacting to = the=20 changing winds and traversing the desert in clans in search of water. = Ibn=20 Khaldun argues that "only tribes held together by group feeling can live = in the=20 desert." But what is this "group feeling" that permitted Bedouin society = to=20 overcome the elements and survive the tortures of the desert?

Ibn Khaldun explains this sentiment as a natural result of the = interactions=20 that were forced by the harsh conditions of desert life. Since they had = to rely=20 on one another for protection and perpetuation, it logically follows = that they=20 would develop a very tight-knit community based on mutual respect. But = "mutual=20 respect" is insufficient to express the full meaning of 'a=EE ab=CC yya.

Due to this mutual reliance, Bedouin society developed a structural = hierarchy=20 that placed emphasis on blood lineage. Clan formation was supreme in = determining=20 the loyalties and interactions of Bedouin society. The concept of family = was far=20 more encompassing than that of most Westerners. The extended family, = including=20 distant cousins and tangential relatives, were all accorded the same = respect and=20 loyalty, as members of the same clan. There was a mutual identity forged = from=20 common goals and experiences of interdependence--'a=EE ab=CC yya.

When the Bedouin tribes slowly began to settle into a pastoral = lifestyle,=20 they kept the societal structure of their nomadic days. The foundations = that=20 were laid in the desert extended to the fledgling cities, forming the = basis of=20 what is now considered "the Arab way of life". With the advent of Islam, = a=20 distinctly Arab monotheism that places stresses the importance of = family, the=20 concept of 'a=EE = ab=CC yya can be said to = have been=20 given a driving ideology to match its encompassing unity.

An understanding of the historical bases of modern Arab society, with = illustration and elaboration from Ibn Khaldun, provides sufficient = background to=20 refute the Orientalist definition of "civil society". It is easy for = Western=20 academics to expound on secular, non-familial organizations as the = underpinnings=20 of liberal democracy because Western society after the Renaissance = placed less=20 emphasis on the family as a unit. Christianity was re-examined during = the=20 Reformation to focus mainly on the individual’s relationship with = God, rather=20 than man’s station or duties on earth. But Islam is a far less = abstract=20 dogma.

Like any other religious text, the Qur’an explains the nature = of God (Allah)=20 and His divine plan for mankind. But unlike Christianity, it consists of = far=20 more specific instructions on day-to-day living. Among these = instructions is the=20 position and importance of family, which is echoed in the Bedouins = described by=20 Ibn Khaldun. Although the Qur’an focuses mainly on the nuclear = family, it is=20 imperative to see this unit in its societal context. A family in the = Arab world=20 is a component of a larger network of family—not as often called = "clans" as in=20 the distant past, but the concepts are similar.

In light of modern imperialism, 'a=EE ab=CC yya takes on a new = air. No longer=20 simply centered around the blood-related tribe, this sentiment of unity = served=20 as the basis of such modern movements as Pan-Arabism and the more recent = Pan-Islamism. Both of these movements were led in directions very = different from=20 democracy, yet when one examines the interactions of the people, it = becomes=20 apparent that 'a=EE = ab=CC yya is very similar = to the ideas=20 of civil society in the West.

Where Robert Putnam emphasizes soccer clubs and social organizations, = Ibn=20 Khaldun would today emphasize the Mosque or coffeehouse, both of which = are=20 modern centers of social interaction. The key is not the organizational=20 structure of interaction, but the interaction itself. People must be = able to=20 share ideas and openly discuss matters of importance to them in order to = develop=20 the social ties necessary to foster a strong sense of civil society. = Although=20 the system of this interaction is different in the West and Middle East, = the=20 activities fostered by their respective systems yield a dialogue. And it = is this=20 dialogue that can serve as the basis for strong and lasting = democracies.